President Trumans Fair Deal of 1949

President Trumans Fair Deal of 1949 The Fair Deal was an extensive list of proposals for social reform legislation suggested by U.S. President Harry S. Truman in his State of the Union address to Congress on January 20, 1949. The term has since come to be used to describe the overall domestic policy agenda of Truman’s presidency, from 1945 to 1953. Key Takeaways: The "Fair Deal" The â€Å"Fair Deal† was an aggressive agenda for social reform legislation proposed by President Harry Truman in January 1949.Truman had initially referred to this progressive domestic policy reform program as his â€Å"21-Points† plan after taking office in 1945.While Congress rejected many of Truman’s Fair Deal proposals, those that were enacted would pave the way for important social reform legislation in the future. In his State of the Union Address, President Truman told Congress that that, â€Å"Every segment of our population, and every individual, has a right to expect from his government a fair deal.† The â€Å"Fair Deal† set of social reforms Truman spoke of continued and built on the New Deal progressivism of President Franklin Roosevelt and would represent the last major attempt by the Executive Branch to create new federal social programs until President Lyndon Johnson proposed his Great Society program in 1964. Opposed by the â€Å"conservative coalition† that controlled Congress from 1939 to 1963, only a handful of Truman’s Fair Deal initiatives actually became law. A few of the major proposals that were debated, but voted down, included federal aid to education, the  creation of a Fair Employment Practices Commission, repeal of the Taft–Hartley Act limiting the power of labor unions, and the provision of universal health insurance. The conservative coalition was a group of Republicans and Democrats in Congress who generally opposed increasing the size and power of the federal bureaucracy. They also denounced labor unions and argued against most new social welfare programs. Despite the opposition of the conservatives, liberal lawmakers managed to win approval of some of the less controversial measures of the Fair Deal. History of the Fair Deal President Truman first gave notice that he would pursue a liberal domestic program as early as September 1945. In his first postwar address to Congress as president, Truman laid out his ambitious â€Å"21-Points† legislative program for economic development and expansion of social welfare. Truman’s 21-Points, several of which still resonate today, included: Increases to the coverage and amount of the unemployment compensation systemIncrease the coverage and amount of the minimum wageControl the cost of living in a peacetime economyEliminate federal agencies and regulations created during World War IIEnact laws ensure full employmentEnact a law making the Fair Employment Practice Committee permanentEnsure sound and fair industrial relationsRequire the U.S. Employment Service to provide jobs for former military personnelIncrease federal assistance to farmersEase restrictions on voluntary enlistment in the armed servicesEnact broad, comprehensive and non-discriminatory fair housing lawsEstablish a single federal agency dedicated to researchRevise the income tax systemEncourage the disposal through sale of surplus government propertyIncrease federal assistance for small businessesImprove federal assistance to war veteransEmphasize conservation and protection of natural in federal public works programsEncourage foreign post-war reconstructio n and settlements of Roosevelt’s Lend-Lease Act Increase wages of all federal government employeesPromote the sale of surplus wartime U.S. naval vesselsEnact laws to grow and retain stockpiles of materials essential to the future defense of the nation Expecting lawmakers to take the lead in drafting the bills necessary to implement his 21-Points, Truman did not send them to Congress. Focused at the time on dealing with rampant inflation, the transition to a peacetime economy, and the growing threat of Communism, Congress had little time for Truman’s social welfare reform initiatives. Despite the delays and opposition from the conservative Republican majority in Congress, Truman persisted, continuing to send them an ever-increasing number of proposals for progressive legislation. By 1948, the program that had begun as the 21-Points had come to be known as the â€Å"Fair Deal.†Ã‚   After his historically unexpected victory over Republican Thomas E. Dewey in the 1948 election, President Truman repeated his social reform proposals to Congress referring to them as the â€Å"Fair Deal.† Highlights of Truman’s Fair Deal Some of the major social reform initiatives of President Truman’s Fair Deal included: A national health insurance planFederal aid to educationAbolition of poll taxes and other practices intended to prevent racial minorities from votingA major tax cut for low-income workersExpanded Social Security coverageA farm assistance programExpansion of public housing programsA substantial increase in the minimum wageRepeal of the labor union-weakening Taft-Hartley ActA new TVA-style program to create public works projectsCreation of a federal Department of Welfare To pay for his Fair Deal programs while reducing the national debt, Truman also proposed a $4 billion tax increase. The Legacy of the Fair Deal Congress rejected most of Truman’s Fair Deal initiatives for two main reasons: Opposition from members of the majority-holding conservative coalition in Congress who viewed the plan as advancing President Roosevelt’s New Deal’s effort to achieve what they considered to be a â€Å"democratic socialist society.†In 1950, barely a year after Truman proposed the Fair Deal, the Korean War shifted the government’s priorities from domestic to military spending. Despite these roadblocks, Congress did approve a few or Truman’s Fair Deal initiatives. For example, the National Housing Act of 1949 funded a program removing crumbling slums in poverty-stricken areas and replacing them with 810,000 new federally rent-assisted public housing units. And in 1950, Congress nearly doubled the minimum wage, raising it from 40 cents per hour to 75 cents per hour, an all-time record 87.5% increase. While it enjoyed little legislative success, Truman’s Fair Deal was significant for many reasons, perhaps most notably its establishment of a demand for universal health insurance as a permanent part of the Democratic Party’s platform. President Lyndon Johnson credited the Fair Deal as being essential to the passage of his Great Society health care measures such as Medicare.

MKTG CLASS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MKTG CLASS - Essay Example Although it is a very old brand (154 years), it needed a lot of restoration work in the present economic climate. She says that in the planning stage many basic questions were asked. New plans were devised to come up with better products. The customers were segmented on the basis of their geographical locations. After the planning, she removed much inefficiency within the company. Millions of pounds were saved but not at the cost of staff. Instead the company spent more money on renovating the stores and making them look more attractive. The presentation then focuses on the ‘soft strategies’. New methods were devised on the backbone of digital technology in order to lure the customers. Burberry now frequently organizes fully choreographed live webcast. The video shows people all around the world watching runway shows live in the Burberry showrooms. All the crucial information about new products, stores, shows etc is provided on the internal website. Travelling road shows are also organized as a part of CRM. The focus of the presentation then shifts towards the human element of the company. Angela says that they hire smart and like-minded people for their brand and organize awards in order to appreciate and motivate them. The company wants to project its modernity through every aspect of its business. For this reason, the Burberry headquarter has a futuristic look with energy saving features to it. But the innovation doesn’t stop with the building. The company has created its own social media website. Customers throughout the world are kept informed through Facebook and live stream shows. The presentation then ends with Angela assuring the audience of her team’s sincerity towards making Burberry a hugely successful

I don't have a topic yet Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 15000 words

I don't have a topic yet - Thesis Example The second chapter describes the thesis objectives, methodology and the formulated hypothesis. The third chapter presents a review literature on agriculture in Ghana and historical trends of data mining. The fourth chapter presents the analytical part of this thesis. The fifth chapter constitutes the results and discussions pertaining to this project. Chapter six contains the conclusion and finally, chapter seven contains the list of references used in this thesis. Data mining refers to the analysis of data to discover the hidden patterns through the use of hidden methodologies. Though the concept has been in place for quite a long time, it only became more prevalent after the advent of larger data sets inside organizations. Big data sets resulted into explosion in the utilization of extensive data mining techniques because of the increasing variation and size of the nature and content of the stored information. From the larger data sets, obtaining simple and straightforward statistics from the system under use will never suffice in good decision making hence the need for discovery of the hidden patterns. The present economy is increasingly becoming information based. This state has brought about changes in the operation environment for businesses or organizations. Consequently, it has also changed the manner of collection and analysis of business data. Bearing in mind the widespread embracement of information technology, a greater percentage of data is collected in the online and real time environments that bring forth large volumes of data. Experts can be in a position of aggregating such time ordered data using a desirable time interval, producing great volumes of time series data that is equally spaced. The data can then be explored followed by analysis through the use of multiple important tools or methodologies that are developed using modernized time series analysis. The storage or

Construction Legal Procedures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Construction Legal Procedures - Essay Example At the turn of 1983, the United Kingdom witnessed the surfacing of a radical Society of Construction Law. Thereafter, the European Society of Construction Law was established as an umbrella law governing the entire construction industry in the European continent (Comba, 2013, pp.302-310). The first and foremost is the time taken by the planning departments in processing the permits. Some of these departments may take very long time to give the feedback thus discouraging the investment approach of the construction works.(Nunnally, 2004)recommended a follow up on the progress of the processing of the permit in order to put more pressure on the planning departments to issue permits on time. Procedures associated with regulation, practises and legislation is too cumbersome and weary. These is because the government through its parliament make changes every time concerning the regulation and standards of the construction. This as a result lengthen the procedures associated with permit issuance.Construction permits are always subjected to various reforms and changes which have no proper definition hence not fully implemented. The reforms are always short-lived and before implementing the proposed rules and regulations, others will have come by thereby in the long run lengthening the process of permits(Nunnally, 2004) Another challenge conflict by the local residents and the community in general. The construction will not be granted permit to start the construction work when there are conflicts in the area of construction. This happens in most cases due to failure by the construction company to involve the local community in the project contract. Before any contract project commences, the community must understand well the benefits and impacts of the project in their lives. Involvement can be done through various channels such as communication through print media, meetings, and seminars among many others. When

A Comparison of Different Anti-Aging Strategies

A Comparison of Different Anti-Aging Strategies As a mild exfoliating procedure, microdermabrasion (MDA) every 1 to 3 months depending on the skin type would be a good preventive anti- aging strategy. A combination of MDA with chemical peels is helpful in photoaging. MDA is always done first followed by the peel. Several studies support the efficacy of this regime for photoageing. Superficial glycolic acid peels and 5% retinoic acid have been used. MDA can also be used as a transdermal drug delivery for various topical antioxidants Amongst lasers, visible/ infrared lasers and fractional lasers have been used for facial rejuvenation. Light systems including intense pulse light systems (IPL), light emitting diodes (LED), photodynamic therapy (PDT) and infrared lights have been used for correcting colour and textural alterations. Radiofrequency ( RF), ultrasound and plasma resurfacing technologies are non-laser systems useful in tissue tightening. Various devices have been developed which combine different technologies- the combination of electrical and optical energy techniques is termed as electrical and optical synergy (ELOS). All these technologies for non- ablative facial rejuvenation have been discussed in depth in chapter 43. Microneedling with dermaroller or in combination with RF technology has shown good results for skin rejuvenation. [55,56] Hyaluronic acid, vitamins and idebenone have been used as mesosolutions for preventive and therapeutic anti-aging benefits.[ 57] These therapies are frequently used in combination therapies. Botulinum toxin is chiefly indicated for dynamic lines correction (by relaxing the facial muscles) whereas fillers is indicated for the correction of volume loss which occurs with aging. For the upper 1/3rd face, botulinum toxin is the mainstay with hyaluronic acid as a supplement. Fillers are the mainstay for mid face, whereas a combination of toxin and fillers are needed for the lower 1/3rd face. [58] Autologous fat transfer, dermal fibroblasts and platelet rich plasma is now being used for volume enhancement in patients who do not desire artificial fillers. Thread lifts with polydioxanone (PDO) threads are being commonly used for lifting up of facial sagging and is chiefly used for structural changes due to aging. It is frequently used in combination with other techniques. Combination therapy is the mainstay in management of aging face. Relax, Refill and Resurface are the three main Rs for facial rejuvenation. Combination therapy of fillers and botulinum toxin is superior and frequently used in facial rejuvenation for relaxing and refilling. This combination provides a three dimensional approach to correction of aging face. Use of chemical peels and lasers, lights and radiofrequency technologies help in effective resurfacing. A systematic approach should be adopted based on the patient needs. An algorithmic and practical approach to management of the aging face in different decades of life based on author’s experience has been outlined below. [Illustration 50.6, 50.7 and 50.8] Clinical case scenarios of aging face and the management in different age groups has been provided. [Figures 50.5 to 50.9] 25 to 35 years: Illustration 50.6 a and b / figure 50.5 Clinical scenario: Management in a 35 year old female [concerns about periorbital folds and perioral lines] Figure 50.5 Products: Sunscreens, moisturizers Procedures: Treatment of tear troughs, marionette and faint nasolabial folds with injectable HA [restylane]. Thread lifts across the angles of the mouth. 35 to 50 years – Illustration 50.7 a and b/ Figure 50.6 a and b Clinical scenario: Management In 42 year old female homemaker with PIH to acne/ textural changes Products: Sunscreens, appropriate face washes, topical adapalene, non HQ skin lightening agent twice daily along with azithromycin pulse doses Procedures: Electrocautery of DPNs, Chemical peels with glycolic, salicylic and yellow peel at 2 weekly intervals, counseled for laser rejuvenation It is important to check for volume loss begins in this decade, however different parts of the face can age at varying rates. Mid facial sag is more evident with prominent nasolabial folds in this 40 year old lady. (Figure 50.7 a) Associated diseases such as diabetes mellitus or hypothyroidism should also be looked into, since it can hasten the aging process; as seen in this obese lady with hypothyroidism. (Figure 50.7 b) 50 years onwards- Illustration 50.8 a and b ( figure 50.8 and 50.9 a and b) Clinical scenario: Management in a 60 year old male executive (Figure 50. 8) Products: Sunscreens, moisturizers, Skin lightening agents – initially the Kligman’s triple combination cream containing (HQ 2%, tretinoin 0.05 and fluocinolone) on alternate night for 2 months followed by non HQ skin lightening agents. Procedures: Chemical peels with glycolic 35 to 50%, salicylic and mandelic peels. 3 HA syringes for his tear troughs, nasolabial, marionette lines and chin fold. 6 monopolar radio frequency sittings. Clinical scenario :Management in 50 year old menopausal home maker ( Figure 50.9) Products: Sunscreens, moisturizer, Skin lightening cream with arbutin, niacinaminde, kojic and flavonoids Procedures: Electrocautery of DPNs, MDA 2 sessions, followed by chemical peels – glycolic 35 to 50%, alternately in combination with lactic, salicylic, pyruvic and tretinoin There has been tremendous advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of aging. Knowledge about newer theories of aging and development of newer bioengineering techniques has led to a validated approach towards objective evaluation of various newer anti- aging products and procedures. Use of optical 3D skin imaging systems along with use of appropriate instrumental software has led to a standardized approach. [ 1] Products: Based on the newer aging theories, innovative anti- aging cosmeceuticals such as Sirtuin activating and anti- glycation products are being developed.[59] Novel topical drug delivery systems for anti- aging products; for example; pectin micro and nano capsules of retinyl palmitate and nano lipoidal forms of isotretinoin are being developed. [60,61]. Systemic and topical anti-oxidants are complexed with chitin nanocrystals and these have a positive influence on aging skin. [62]The interest and clinical research into the newer generation cosmeceuticals such as peptides, growth factors, cytokines and stem cells is continually increasing and controlled studies on the relevance of these emerging products are being performed. [47] Use of phytohormones and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) for skin aging is still in the nascent phase. [63,64] Procedures: Various devices including microneedles, microdermabrasion, electroporation, ultrasound and radiofrequency are now being used as transdermal delivery systems for the anti- aging actives. Amongst the novel use of injectables in anti- aging, mesobotox has been used for facial rejuvenation, and PRP, dermal fibroblasts, adipose tissue derived stem cells and autologous venous transplants have been used for soft tissue augmentation. [65,66] Amongst the technology based devices, non-ablative fractional lasers and radiofrequency is being increasingly used for rejuvenation of the aging skin. Newer wavelengths are being developed; for example infrared laser at 1565nm and a new fractional 1940 nm laser consisting of thulium rod pumped by pulsed alexandrite laser.[67,68] The shift towards combination of technologies and home based devices is seen amongst the various technology based equipment for anti- aging. RF devices are being developed in combination with other technologies or dev ices such as microneedling, ultrasound, cryolipolysis, LEDs and lasers. Home based non ablative diode and radiofrequency devices are being investigated for their role in photorejuvenation. [ 69] To conclude, the process of aging begins early in life. Both the patient and the dermatologist need to accept the factors which cannot be treated, identify the factors which can be treated and adopt evidence based preventive and corrective modalities for management of the aging face. It is the duty and responsibility of a dermatologist to provide appropriate anti-aging measures based on the patients’ needs and at different decades of life. Skin aging is a continuous process and begins early in life. Cutaneous aging can be classified as intrinsic and extrinsic types; both of which have classical clinical and histological manifestations. Understanding the pathomechanisms and newer concepts of skin aging has helped in designing optimal anti-aging strategies. A detailed history taking, clinical examination and needs assessment helps to formulate an appropriate treatment schedule. During evaluation of an aging face, changes in the three major characteristics-colour, textural and shape should be assessed. An objective evaluation can be done by standardized documentation and use of various grading/ rating systems. The preventive aspects include avoiding exogenous factors such as smoking, stress and UV radiation along with adoption of correct lifestyle habits in the form of regular exercise and a balanced diet. The corrective aspects include use of appropriate anti- aging products and procedures based on the age and needs of t he patients. Anti- aging products include antioxidants, cell regulators (retinods, alpha hydroxyl acids, peptides, growth factors, cytokines, stem cells) and hormone replacement therapy. The procedural modalities of treatment include basic procedures (electrocautery, microdermabrasion and chemical peels), use of technology based devices (lasers, lights, radiofrequency) and injectables (botulinum toxin, fillers, fat transfer, PRP, microneedling and mesotherapy). Combination of procedural therapies is most effective. Management of an aging skin should be done on a long-term basis and should be tailor made based on the needs assessment of an individual.

Analyzing How Buildings Affect Physical and Mental Health Essay

According to Bokalders and Block (2009) some people spend more than 90 percent of their live indoors. This represents that those who live or work in buildings may be significantly influenced by them. Materials which are utilized in the erection of buildings, also interior design of buildings, providing clean air and intensive light are important issues to be taken into account, because their quality has considerable impact on residents. Rostron (2008) claims that adverse effect of a building can cause a considerable implication for society: many of those who suffered from ‘sick buildings’ have complained that their productivity had reduced by 20 percent. Thus, in order to construct healthy buildings without any unfavorable effect on occupants, complex issues should be taken into consideration. The aim of this paper is to identify how buildings can affect physical and mental health and to find solutions which can create better conditions for living and working in. Firstl y, this paper will unfold the causes of bad welfare of occupants and what harm buildings are able to do to people’s health in general, then implication for society will be mentioned. After that some possible solutions will be suggested and evaluated in terms of effectiveness, cost and availability. Constructing a building is challenging issue which requires many problems to be solved and much decision to be taken. Maintaining the balance between architectural design, engineering design and interior in general is not an easy task. In addition, providing healthy indoor environment to the occupants that enhances their physical and mental well-being should be prioritized. Reinhold, Afshari and Gunnarsen (2005, 29) state there are variety of factors in the indoor envir... ...the loss of sleep, which then outcomes as a poor physical and mental health (Åkerstedt and Nilsson 2003, 6-12) Interior Restorative environment It is believed that nature has a restorative effect on stress. According to Ulrich (1984) patients after surgery quickly become better if their windows viewed the landscape rather than buildings. In addition, it was found that pictures of nature may have effective restoration on patients than images of urban sites (Ulrich et al., 1991). Ulrich (1991) reported that the patients who were designated an image with the view of nature demonstrated less nervousness; also demand for anodyne in comparison with a control group has reduced. Moreover, at Conquest Hospital in East Sussex art sessions for stroke patients have been maintained and it has been noted that visual art assists in relieving the pain both mental and physical.

Supply Chain Quality Management Practices

TOWARDS A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF SUPPLY CHAIN QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Article: International Journal of Production Research †¢This paper reports the result of a comparative study of quality tools and methods adaptation by operations and supply chain managers. †¢SCQM is defined as a system based approach to performance improvement that leverages opportunities created by upstream and downstream linkages with suppliers and customers. †¢Operation management is traditional been explained by some version of an ‘inputs-transformation process- outputs’ view of the productive capability of the firms.From Quality perspective, operation managers have focused on internal activities such as process control process improvement, product design improvement and design of experiment. As a result, more and more six-sigma improvement project evolved. †¢In addition experts like Deming have long emphasized importance of customers and supplier. †¢In this paper, i t explored the difference between quality management practice of operation managers and each type of managers emphasizes supply chain managers, including what quality tools.Tool can here mean the method such as benchmarking, an approach to improving quality such as process improvement team (PIT) and leadership. Literature review and hypothesis development †¢Supply chain management has developed as a field from the integration of operations and marketing management. As a result, a linkage with upstream firms – which was once the domain of purchasing – has been elevated in importance. †¢The quality management precedence for this is found in Deming’s fourth point, ‘End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone.Instead, minimize total cost. Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust’. This has resulted in a merging of quality management and supply chain management p rinciples. †¢Supply chain management practices can result in operational benefits such as decreased production lead times, reduced costs, faster product development, and increased quality †¢In this article calling for integration of quality and supply chain management Theodorakioglu found a significant positive correlation between supplier management and total quality management.Quality has been one of the critical determines in choosing suppliers. Hence a hypothesis is developed t understand how managers differ in adopting quality tool. †¢57 quality tools are selected. Some of the tools are Benchmarking, Enterprise resource planning (ERP), Just in Time (JIT), lean, Quality awards, Six Sigma Black Belt DMAIC, Poka Yoke, basic seven tools of quality like flowcharts, Fish bone Diagram, Affinity diagram, 5-S, Problem evaluation and review technique (PERT), and Data analysis. Quality professional tools like control chart, computer aided testing (CAT), inspection, Gage R&R . †¢Some supply chain tools like customer relationship management, Complaint resolution, Supplier development, Supplier evaluation like ISO 9000, and customer benefit package. †¢Design tools like Quality Function Deployment (QFD), Computer Aided Design (CAD), Concurrent design, Quality assurance (QA), Failure mode and effects analysis(FMEA), Design of Experiment(DOE), Design for manufacture (DFM), Reliability Index, DMADV, and Robust design by Taguchi. Management tools like On the Job Training, Change Management, Human resource Management (HRM), Systems Thinking, Contingency Theory, Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle, Crosby-managing quality concept, Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA), Jurans – Trilogy of improvement, and Hoshin planning †¢However, these tools are a broad collection of approaches to improving quality that will provide insights to the differences between how operations and supply chain managers approach quality improvement. Methods Data for this study was gathered by inviting participants to complete a web-based survey. The survey included seven Likert scales that allowed respondent rank the extent to which they utilized various quality tools. †¢These lists are submitted to the panel of six supply chain and quality managers. Result in removal of one tool and addition of two tools in the survey. Total 57 tools are included in the survey. †¢The test was conducted with MBA students, APICS members, ISM members, and CSCMP members. Result Using SAS, it is examined difference in the utilization of quality tools between operation and managers and supply chain managers. It is computed and found the difference between mean responses of each manger. †¢A positive difference indicate – a particular tool is utilized to a greater extend between both managers. Negative differences indicate – operation managers tend to use the tool more than supply chain managers. †¢To test our hypothesis, we then ranked the quality tool means and performed a Kruskal Wallis test to analyze differences in ranks where the treatment was type of manager.Conclusion †¢Tools of high importance to both Supply Chain and Operation Managers: On the job training, Data Analysis, Supply chain management, Customer relationship management, Project Management and survey. †¢Tools important primarily to Supply Chain Mangers: Leadership, Benchmarking, Complaint resolution, Supplier management, Change management, ERP, Awards, Design for the environment, Six sigma, and Deming. †¢Tools important primarily to Operation Mangers: QFD, Computer Aided Design (CAD), Computer Aided Testing (CAT), Prototyping, ISO 9000, Design for Manufacture, PDCA, Gage R&R, and 5-S. Tools of low importance to both Supply Chain and Operations Managers: DMAIC, Crosby, DMADV, MBNQA, SERVQUAL, Juran, and Hoshin. †¢There are few surprises. The low rankings for the Baldrige award and the six-sigma methodologies were somewh at surprising. It could be that DMAIC and DMADV is more the domain of six sigma black belts. Since these black belts tend to be more specialized, both managers may not utilize these processes in daily problem solving and decision-making. Reflection on the identified differences reveals that operations managers tend to manage supply chain relationship through procedural methods such as ISO 9000 and supplier evaluation. Supply chain managers tend to adopt more collaborative approaches such as supplier development, awards, and complaint resolution processes. As the field of operations moves more in a supply chain direction, this could change. Supply chain professionals have long emphasized collaboration and this has become part of the supply chain culture.